在正式撰写毕业论文之前，学生要写出开题报告，以便指导老师能根据学生对文献的综述和对所选论题的认识，确定其可行性。
开题报告是作者将自己初步选定的题目之内容、思想等，以书面形式向毕业论文答辩委员会的导师和听众作一书面汇报和简要说明。
写开题报告目的：一是作者能将所选课题的内容框架、研究现状、选题意义、重难点和创新点、文化结构、主要引征材料及参考书目作一总体思路的勾划，作者对该选题的前因后果，来龙去脉进行有序的组合清理，为撰写毕业论文作好充分准备。二是作者能广泛听取他人的宝贵意见，并在此基础上重新理顺论文思路，使其结构更趋完整，内容更趋翔实。
开题报告的基本组成部分
1、毕业论文题目
论文题目用中英文撰写，汉语在前，英语在后。目的是限定毕业论文的大致范围和方向，即论题。应力求简明扼要，引人注目。一般不超过15—20字。必要时可使用副标题。
2、本选题的研究目的
以中学英语教学法方向为例，则须说明要解决英语教与学，理论与实践等方面的哪些问题，这些问题应是在教学实践中比较突出又难以解决的问题;或是前人从未解决的，并且能填补某一领域的空白的问题。
3、本选题在国内外同行业中的研究现状
国内外学者对该选题曾作过哪些方面的相关研究，本课题在国内外研究中处于何等地位?是属于未开拓的领域，还是在前人已经研究过的基础上作深层次的研究?国内外有哪些论文、论著涉及到本选题的内容?
4、研究本选题的动机及意义
提出本选题的根据是什么?为什么提出这个选题?本选题的研究有什么意义?从理论的角度看，本选题有哪些方面的突破，其价值取向是什么?本选题与相关领域之间的关系如何?对英语教学会起什么作用?从实践的角度看，本选题是否有助于英语教师和学生把握教与学的动向，使人们在英语教与学的过程中少走弯路，是否有利于提高英语教学质量?
5、本选题研究的主要观点、内容、重点和难点
本选题研究有哪几个重要观点，其特点是什么?研究的重点在哪几个方面?研究的难点在何处?怎样从理论与实践出发，对英语教学进行更深入的理论探讨?如何结合英语教学实际对改进英语教学作对策思考?本选题有哪几个新观点?是否填补了国内外同行业研究中的空白?
6、本选题的撰写框架
框架可用提纲形式表述，一般构成如下：
引言：提出问题、摆明观点。
论点：分析问题与阐明自己的观点。大致包括：问题的原因及危害性;解决问题的重要性和必要性;从理论上来论证问题的解决方法，并联系教学实际阐述解决问题的策略与做法。另外，利用实际数据作为论据，证明方法的有效性。
结论：通过对问题的分析论证，其结果如何?对人们在英语教与学中有何指导意义?有哪些方面需要继续研究的?它还有什么不足之处?
参考书目：参考书目一般是英文参考书在前，中文参考书在后，以字母拼音顺序排列。
7、研究基础
作者在选择该题之前作过哪些方面的学习、研究或写过什么文章?说明能如期完成毕业论文撰写的理由。
8、研究方法
常见的研究方法包括：观察、调查、描述、实验、实证、文献、个案研究、比较研究、经验总结、实践反思、测量、量化、行动研究、表列、图示、内容分析等方法。例如：实验的方法就是对英语教学班级进行实验对比;调查的方法就是通过调查表、询问、问答等形式寻找解决问题的方法。
一个课题根据具体情况可能需要一种或多种研究方法。
9、撰写步骤及阶段任务
包括：选题及开题报告初稿、正式开题报告及提纲、完成初稿、二稿、三稿、定稿等、何时论文答辩等。
开题报告中文范例
标题： 英语隐喻汉译
(On Translating English Metaphors into Chinese)
1) 本选题国内外研究现状
对隐喻的研究在国外已形成较为完整的体系，其中以Lakoff & Johnson (1987)的研究最具有代表性，而对于其汉译的研究却凤毛麟角。国内对于隐喻的研究主要受Lakoff & Johnson理论的影响，其中以胡壮麟、朱永生为主要代表。在隐喻翻译的研究方面，李国南(1990)，胡文仲(1994)对于英汉成语或谚语中的习用性比喻的喻体进行过比较，并探讨了其翻译的途经。在近期出版的刊物中有对队喻翻译研究方面的文章，其中以徐莉娜的《隐喻的翻译》为主要代表。但其研究的范围也只是局限于文学、修辞用语的隐喻翻译。
2)本选题的意义、重点、难点及创新点
意义：本选题突破了历来将隐喻的汉译局限在诗学、修辞学、文学等范畴。由于“翻译是跨语言、跨文化的交际活动”(陈宏薇：1996)，翻译对各民族之间文化的传播起着非常重要贡献的作用。我们对日常用语中隐喻的汉译研究应与英语语言文化背景的研究结合起来。
重点：本选题重在研究隐喻在英语日常用语中存在的普遍性、可译性及其翻译的方法。
难点：怎样从文化交际的角度对日常用语中的隐喻的汉译进行深入的理论探讨。
创新点：研究英语日常用语中的隐喻的汉译理论及其方法。
3)论文的结构及简要说明
1. 引言
2. 英语日常用语中隐喻存在的普遍性
2.1 隐喻的定义
2.2 关于隐喻研究的常用书语
2.3 英语日常用语中的隐喻
3. 英语日常用语中隐喻的特点
3.1 日常用语中隐喻的分类
3.1.1 习用性隐语
3.1.2 新生隐喻
3.2 英语隐喻与汉语隐喻
3.3 英语日常用语中隐喻的可译性
4. 英语日常用语中的隐译汉译
4.1 翻译的标准
4.2 日常用语中隐喻汉译的难点
4.3 日常用语中隐语汉译的过程
4.4 日常用语中隐喻汉译的基本方法及原则
5. 日常用语中隐喻汉译的方法与技巧
5.1 直译法
5.2 意译法
5.3 转译法
5.4 直译和意译结合法
4) 参考书目
Brodkey, Linda. Review: The Language in Metaphors. ( College English Jan, v50 pp 89-94), 1988.
Jin Di & Eugene, A. Nida. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation Publishing Company, 1984.
Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. Metaphors We Live by Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1987.
Nida, Eugene A. & William, Reyburn. Meaning Across Cultures, Maryknoll of N.Y. Orbis Book, 1981.
…
陈宏薇 《新实用汉译英教程》，武汉：湖北教育出版社，1996。
陈文伯 《英语成语和汉语成语》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1980。
邓炎昌、刘润清《语言与文化》，北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1989。
张培基等《英汉翻译教程》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，1983。
……
当今，对语感的探索成为热点，其重要意义，我以为主要在于为数学找到了一种新模式，开辟出一片新天地。语感是认识主体在对各种知识特别是语言知识的学习、积累、领悟、理解过程中所产生的一种对语言材料的感受能力。对客观事理的认识就越具体；情感是打开任务心世界的钥匙，情感越真,言语的感染力就越大。文学作品的言语情境具有显性，比较适应于语感式数学。采情较高的学生，用语感式会得到更快的提高。从语感的定义出发，我们可以看到，语感不是神秘奇奥的思维现象，踏实各种知识、体验长期积淀的必然反映。
那么，要培养准确、敏捷的语感，正确的途径和方法是什么呢？在故事实践中，我体会到，可以从一下几方面入手。
第一是多看多记，多看是指既看生活、又看书本。现在多数的中学生，由于学习负担重，接触社会生活，参与社会生活的机会比较少。经常是学校——家里的两点一线式，及时部分学生有接触社会的机会，其范围也是有限的。在语文数学中我经常发现，那些特别认真埋伏学习的热播反而没有那些爱玩爱逛的学生对语文的语文能力强，其中一个最主要的原因是接触生活的面的窄与宽的问题。因此，我觉得，中学语文教师应该提倡、鼓励，引导学生观察生活，参与生活，而不是一味地把学生困在教室里，书堆里。这一点，说起来容易，做起来顽难。因为，理论与实际中竟有一定的距离。要这样做，既要冒一定的风险，又要付出相当多的精力。
看书这一点来说，现在的中学生除了课本之外还能大量阅读的人实在再多，据说是没有时间，甚至有些老师，家长也不允许读“闲书”。课余时间被作业、训练题挤得满满的，学生的阅读量少，自然缺少了对语言材料理解和领悟的机会，光靠课本里的课文时远远不够的。
说道多记，我觉得现代中学生该记而没有记的东西太多了。无论是中国文学、文化的常识，重要的作结作品，还是成语、典故，所知都少得令人心寒。从背诵方面说，传说语文教学中最注重的这个内容，现在也被很多语文教师轻视了，而现行中学课本中要求背诵的篇目本来就不多。对丰富的语言材料连起码的记忆底蕴谈不上，怎么谈得上感受呢？所以，要培养语感，必须先从观察和积累做起。
中学阶段，是人一生中记忆力最强的时期，有目的、有计划，分阶段地给学生大量的语文知识，对中学生来说，并不是一种负担，因为它首先适应了中学生好奇心强，什么都想知道的特点；其次是它填补了中学生在语言记忆方面的空白。这个工作，最佳的时间是从初一开始，循序渐进，六年下来，积累的数量是相当可观的，而这对培养语感是最基础的一步。
第二，是强调诵读。我们在上课时，常用的一种教学法就是教师先让学生把课文读上一遍，然后，大量的时间和精力都放在分析和归纳上，表面上师生双方都忙得不亦乐乎，但下课后一想，这堂课学生真正的收获是什么呢？“诵读”是培养语感的重要手段。要培养语感，必须强调语感。
2. British English and American English 2
2.1The history of British English 3
2.2 The history of American English 4
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English 6
3.1 Lexical differences 6
3.1.1The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms 7
3.1.2 Differences in verb 7
3.1.2.1 Differences in the inflectional endings of verbs 7
3.1.2.2Different use of present perfect tenses 8
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs 8
3.1.2.4 Different use of "have" 9
3.1.3 Different use of function words 9
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb 9
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb 10
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles 11
3.2 Syntactical differences 12
3.2.1 Differences in compound object 12
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements 13
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood 13
4. The differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English 14
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English 17
6. Conclusion 17
Acknowledgements 19
References 19
1．Introduction
There is one play in the famous American TV series Friends: Ross will go to England to marry Emily, suddenly Rachel decides to show his love to Ross and goes to England either, so his friend Phoebe makes a call to tell the news to Ross and Emily, Emily’s housekeeper answers the call. The dialogue as follows:
Housekeeper: The Waltham Residence.
Phoebe: Oh...yes…is this…umm…Emily’s Parents’ house?
Housekeeper: This is the housekeeper speaking. And by the way, young lady, that is not how one addresses oneself on the telephone. First one identifies oneself and then asks for the person with whom one wishes to speak.
Phoebe: (In a British accent)This is Phoebe Buffay. I was wondering, please, if-if it’s not too much trouble, please, umm，might I speak to Miss Emily Waltham, please?
Housekeeper: Miss Waltham is at the rehearsal dinner and it’s not polite to make fun of people. Goodbye.
Phoebe: No,no,no, I’ll be nice, I swear!!! Could you just give me the number for where they are?
Housekeeper: I’m afraid, I’m not at liberty to divulge that information.
Phoebe: Ok, somebody is on their way to ruin wedding okay. And I have to warn somebody, alright. So if you don’t give me that number then I’m going to come over there and kick your snooty ass all the way to New Glocken...shire.
Housekeeper: Hangs up[1]
We can see from the above dialogue that British English is more serious and formal than American English. The American speaks at will while the Englishmen speak gently. As we all know the two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. There seems to be little differences between the two varieties but the influences are very different. On some occasion we may have some mistakes in communication, in order to help the English speakers and learners understand the two varieties better and to eliminate troubles that may prevent communication and English writing, so I will make analysis on the grammar differences between British English and American English.
2. British English and American English
Nowadays English has developed into a global language. The fact that such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there are many dialects and varieties. The two major varieties of English used by people as native language are British and American English. As a message carrier, English fully reflects the unique culture possessed by the British and American countries. Since in Dissertations on the English Language, Noah Webster pointed out “several circumstances render a feature separation of the American tongue from the English necessary and unavoidable.”
2.1 The History of British English
English is a West Germanic language which originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting the varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon, eventually came to dominate. The original Old English language was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic language family, who conquered and colonized parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries; the second by the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman. These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree, though it was never a truly mixed language in the strict linguistic sense of the word, as mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication.
Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English; the later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility, resulting in an enormous and varied vocabulary. It mainly divided into four periods.
（1）Proto-English （the 5th century AD）[2]
The languages of Germanic tribes gave rise to the English language (the Angles, Saxons, Frisians, Jutes and perhaps even the Franks), who traded and fought with the Latin-speaking Roman Empire in the centuries-long process of the Germanic peoples' expansion into Western Europe. Many Latin words for common objects entered the vocabulary of these Germanic peoples before any of their tribes reached Britain; examples include camp, cheese, cook, fork, inch, kettle, kitchen, linen, mile, mill, mint (coin), noon, pillow, pin, pound, punt (boat), street and wall. The Romans also gave the English language words which they had themselves borrowed from other languages: anchor, butter, chest, devil, dish, sack and wine.
（2）Old English（AD 450—1100）[2]
The invaders' Germanic language replaced the indigenous Brythonic languages. （form one of the two branches of the Insular Celtic language family, the other being Goidelic）The original Celtic languages remained in parts of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall. The dialects spoken by the Anglo-Saxons formed what is now called Old English. Later, it was strongly influenced by the North Germanic language Norse, spoken by the Vikings （is one of the Norse (Scandinavian) explorers, warriors, merchants, and pirates who raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the late eighth to the early eleventh century.）who invaded and settled mainly in the north-east of England. The new and the earlier settlers spoke languages from different branches of the Germanic family; many of their lexical roots were the same or similar, although their grammars were more distinct, including the prefix, suffix and inflection patterns for many words. The Germanic language of these Old English-speaking inhabitants was influenced by contact with Norse invaders, which might have been responsible for some of the morphological simplification of Old English, including the loss of grammatical gender and explicitly marked case (with the notable exception of the pronouns). The most famous surviving work from the Old English period is a fragment of the epic poem "Beowulf" composed by an unknown poet; it is thought to have been substantially modified, probably by Christian clerics long after its composition.
（3）Middle English（AD 1066-1470）[2]
For about 300 years following the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Norman kings and their high nobility spoke only one of the langues d'oïl called Anglo-Norman, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Various contemporary sources suggest that within fifty years of the invasion, most of the Normans outside the royal court spoke English, with French remaining the prestige language of government and law, largely out of social inertia. For example, Orderic Vitalis, a historian born in 1075 and the son of a Norman knight, said that he learned French only as a second language. A tendency for French-derived words to have more formal connotations has continued to the present day; most modern English speakers would consider a "cordial reception" (from French) to be more formal than a "hearty welcome" (Germanic). Another example is the very unusual construction of the words for animals being separated from the words for their food products e.g. beef and pork (from the French bœuf and porc) being the products of the Germanically named animals 'cow' and 'pig'.
（4）Modern English（1500 up to the present）[2]
Modern English can be divided into two parts: early modern english(1500-1800)and late modern English. Modern English is often dated from the Great Vowel Shift, which took place mainly during the 15th century. English was further transformed by the spread of a standardized London-based dialect in government and administration and by the standardizing effect of printing. By the time of William Shakespeare (mid-late 16th century), the language had become clearly recognizable as Modern English.
English has continuously adopted foreign words, especially from Latin and Greek, since the Renaissance. (In the 17th century, Latin words were often used with the original inflections, but these eventually disappeared). As there are many words from different languages and English spelling is variable, the risk of mispronunciation is high, but remnants of the older forms remain in a few regional dialects, most notably in the West Country.
In 1755, Samuel Johnson published the first significan t English dictionary, his Dictionary of the English Language.
2.2 The history of American English
During the 17th century, or more precisely on May 14, 1607, the first English settlers landed in Virginia. This was a group of 104 London entrepreneurs and they established the first English colony in Jamestown. Later on, in 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers, settlers from England, landed in Massachusetts, and also brought the English language over the Atlantic Ocean to America and another variety of English was born, American English. This variety is the largest of all the English varieties, since as many as 70% of the native English speakers live in the US. American English has preserved a number of words and features from the English spoken in England at the time of the settlement, which have now been changed in British English.
The history of American English can be divided into the colonial (1607-1776), the national (1776-1898), and the international (1898-present) periods. During nearly four hundred years of use in North America, the English language changed in small ways in pronunciation and grammar but extensively in vocabulary and in the attitude of its speakers. English settlements along the Atlantic Coast during the seventeenth century provided the foundation for English as a permanent language in the New World. But the English of the American colonies was bound to become distinct from that of the motherland. When people do not talk with one another, they begin to talk differently. The Atlantic Ocean served as an effective barrier to oral communication between the colonists and those who stayed in England, ensuring that their speech would evolve in different directions.[3]
Americans also came cheek-to-jowl with "Amerindians" of several linguistic stocks, as well as French and Dutch speakers. They had to talk in new ways to communicate with their new neighbors. Moreover, the settlers had come from various districts and social groups of England, so there was a homogenizing effect: those in a given colony came to talk more like one another and less like any particular community in England. All these influences combined to make American English a distinct variety of the language. In the United States, there are also regional differences, and these are ultimately descendants of a mixture of accents spoken in the British Isles at the time of the settlement of America. Dialect boundaries in the US tend to run from east to west. The first immigrants settled along the Atlantic coast and they spread from east to west across the continent and took some dialect forms, for example words and pronunciation features, with them. The dialect areas in North America are much larger than they are in England, mainly because English has been spoken in England for about 1,500 years, but in America for only approximately 300 years. Because of America’s recent settlement, there has not been enough time for linguistic changes and this is why there are not so many dialect differences in this large country.
3. Grammar differences between British English and American English
English grammar is the set of rules within the English language itself. "An English grammar"(one kind of grammar system)is a specific study or analysis of these rules. In linguistics, grammar refers to the logical and structural rules that govern the composition of sentences, phrases, and words in any given natural language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this field includes lexicology and syntax, often complemented by phonetics, phonology, semantics, and pragmatics. I mainly make analysis on the lexical and syntactical differences between British English and American English.
3.1 Lexical Differences
Lexicology is that part of linguistics which studies words, their nature and meaning, words’ elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon. Lexical differences mean relating to the words’ differences of a language.
3.1.1 The different use of collective nouns in their single or plural forms
Collective nouns such as “team, faculty, family, government” often take plural verb agreement and plural pronoun substitution in Britain English, but they nearly always take singular agreement and singular pronoun substitution in American English. There is a tendency in Britain English, to stress the individuality of the members, which is reflected in plural verb agreement and pronoun substitution, whereas American English Strongly tends to stress the unitary function of the group, which is reflected in singular verb and pronoun forms.[4] 6
Some examples:
Your team is doing well this year, isn’t it? (AmE)
Your team are doing well this year, aren’t they? (BrE)
3.1.2 Differences in Verb
In syntax, a verb is a word (part of speech) that usually denotes an action (bring, read), an occurrence (decompose, glitter), or a state of being (exist, stand). Depending on the language, a verb may vary in form according to many factors, possibly including its tense, aspect, mood and voice. It may also agree with the person, gender, and/or number of some of its arguments (subject, object).
3.1.2.1 Differences in the Inflectional Endings of Verbs
The past tense and past participle of the verbs are different in BrE and AmE.
The past tense and past participle of the verbs learn, spoil, spell, burn, dream, smell, spill, leap, and others, can be either irregular (learnt, spoilt, etc.) or regular (learned, spoiled, etc.). In BrE, the irregular and regular forms are current; in some cases (smelt, leapt) there is a strong tendency towards the irregular forms (especially by speakers using Received Pronunciation); in other cases (dreamed, leaned, learned) the regular forms are somewhat more common. In AmE, the irregular forms are never or rarely used (except for burnt and leapt).
Nonetheless, as with other usages considered nowadays to be typically British, the t endings are often found in older American texts. However, usage may vary when the past participles are actually adjectives, as in burnt toast.( Note that the two-syllable form learned ['lə:nid] usually written simply as learnt, is still used as an adjective to mean "educated", or to refer to academic institutions, in both BrE and AmE.)Finally, the past tense and past participle of dwell and kneel are more commonly dwelt and knelt on both sides of the Atlantic, although dwelled and kneeled are widely used in the US (but not in the UK).
In British English, the past tense of “get’’ is “got”, while American English usually use its past participle “gotten”.
For example,
A. John has got much better during the last week. (BrE)
B. John has gotten much better during the last week. (AmE)
According to the custom that British English usually uses “got” while American English “gotten”, we can quickly tell the nationality of the speaker. The former is British and the later is American. When Americans use “got”, they mean “own, possess and dominate”, such as the following two examples:
They’ve got no pride.
I’ve got plenty of material if I can just handle it.
3.1.2.2 Different use of present perfect tenses
Traditionally, BrE uses the present perfect tense to talk about an event in the recent past(express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment) and with the words already, just, and yet. For example:
British English:[5]
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:[5]
I just had lunch or I've just had lunch.
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? Or did you finish your homework yet?
In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect (to express a fact) or the simple past (to imply an expectation). This American style has become widespread only in the past 20 to 30 years; the British style is still in common use as well. In British English the present perfect is used to.
"I've just arrived home." / "I just arrived home."
"I've already eaten." / "I already ate." [6]
Recently, the American use of just with simple past has made inroads into BrE, most visibly in advertising slogans and headlines such as "Cable broadband just got faster".
Similarly, AmE occasionally replaces the pluperfect with the preterite. Also, US spoken usage sometimes, especially with the contracted forms, substitutes the conditional for the pluperfect (If I would have cooked the pie we could have had it for lunch), but this tends to be avoided in writing.[6]
3.1.2.3 Different use of transitive and intransitive verbs
The following verbs show differences in transitivity between BrE and AmE.[6]
agree: transitive or intransitive in BrE, usually intransitive in AmE (agree a contract/agree to or on a contract). However, in formal AmE legal writing one often sees constructions like as may be agreed between the parties (rather than as may be agreed upon between the parties).
appeal(as a decision): usually intransitive in BrE (used with against) and transitive in AmE (appeal against the decision to the Court/appeal the decision to the Court).
cater("to provide food and service"): intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (to cater for a banquet/to cater a banquet).
claim: sometimes intransitive in BrE (used with for), strictly transitive in AmE.
protest: in the sense of "oppose", intransitive in BrE, transitive in AmE (The workers protested against the decision/The workers protested the decision). The intransitive protest against in AmE means, "to hold or participate in a demonstration against". The older sense "proclaim" is always transitive (protest one's innocence).
write: in BrE, the indirect object of this verb usually requires the preposition to, for example, I'll write to my MP or I'll write to her (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, for example, I'll write her a letter). In AmE, write can be used monotransitively (I'll write my congressman; I'll write him).
3.1.2.4 Different use of “have”.
British English usually uses “Have you any children?” or “Have you got any
children?” while Americans commonly express the same meaning with “Do you have any children?”Let us see some other examples.
How many brothers do you have? (AmE)
How many brothers have you? (BrE)
You don’t have much room here. (AmE)
You haven’t (got) much room here. (BrE)
3.1.3 Different use of function words
Function words (or grammatical words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. Words that are not function words are called content words (or lexical words): these include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs, although some adverbs are function words (e.g., then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words, but can only describe the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail, but treat lexical words in general terms only. Now I will compare the different use of function words in BrE and AE in detail as follows.
3.1.3.1 Different use of preposition and adverb
Differences between British and American English in prepositions are shown in the following two aspects: (1) different use of prepositions in the construction of phrases; (2) when using phrases, one will use a preposition while the other will omit it.
(1)Let us first review the different use of prepositions.
Your daughter’s name stands first in the list. (BrE)
Your daughter’s name stands first on the list. (AmE)
These dresses are in a sale. (BrE)
These dresses are on sale. (AmE)
He will come here at a quarter to three. (BrE, AmE)
He will come here at a quarter before /of / till three. (AmE)
She lives just round the corner (BrE).[7]4
She lives just around the corner (AmE).
Similarly, “five past nine” can be expressed in American English by “five after nine” or “nine five”. In front of “weekend” and “Christmas”, British English uses “at” or “over”, while American English adopts “over” or “on”.
At the weekend / Christmas (BrE)
Over the weekend / Christmas (BrE, AmE)
On the weekend / Christmas (AmE)
(2) Omitting preposition[8]2
In British English, before “day”, “week” or “certain day”, preposition “on” shall be used, while it is not so in American English.
The new term begins on September 1. (BrE)
The new term begins September 1. (AmE)
I’ll see you on Monday. (BrE)
I’ll see you Monday. (AmE)
In American English, when “home” is used as an adverb, the preposition “at” is not needed. But, in British English, “at” is required before “home”. Hence, “at home” is used in British English.
Is he home? (AmE)
Is he at home? (BrE)
3.1.3.2 Different use of auxiliary verb
In linguistics, an auxiliary is a verb functioning to give further semantic or syntactic information about the main or full verb following it. There are three types: Modal auxiliaries，have and go.
No matter in the frequency or the tendency of auxiliary verb, AmE differs from BrE. Their differences are stated as follows:.
(1)shall
Shall in BrE, is widely used in the fist person to raise questions, answer questions ,or to express future, while in AmE it is only used in the law file or informal style paper. In formal style paper, people usually use will or should. Such as:
Br.E:1)I shall tell you later.
Am.E:1)I will tell you later.
2)Shall I drink this now?
2)Should I drink this now?
(2)would[9]2
Would has two special usages in AmE, firstly it can show the usual action in the past. such as: When I was small, I would go there everyday.
However in BrE, the past tense or used to can express the past uaual action, therefore in BrE the above sentence should be changed into: When I was small, I went there everyday. Or When I was wmall, I used to go there everyday.
Secondly, would in AmE can express hypothesis in some informal language, quite like a kind of subjunctive mood, however in BrE not.
Try to compare:
Am.E:1)I wish I would have done it.
2)If I would have seen one, I would have bought it for you.
Br.E(it also the same with AmE):1)I wish I had done it.
2)If I had seen one, I would have bought it for you.
In Br.E, “would” and “will” can express suppose, while in Am.E the auxiliary verb “should” and “must” express supposition. Try to compare:
Br.E:1)That will be the postman at the door.
2)That would be zhongshan Road over there.
Am.E: 1)That must be (should be)the mailman at the door.
2)That should be(must be)Zhongshan Rood over there.
(3)used to
“Used to” in AmE is not seen as Modal auxiliary, but seen as notional word. To the opposite, in Br.E, used to is just seen as modal auxiliary, can offer or deny questions, also can be used as notional word but people use “do” to offer or deny questions. For example:
1)He used to go there.(notional verb)
Did he use to go there.(notional verb)
2)Used he to go there.(auxiliary verb)
He used not to go there.(auxiliary verb)
(4)ought to[9]6
“Ought to” is widely used in BrE to raise or deny questions, but in AmE use “should” to substitute for it, such as:
Br.E:1)Ought we to eat lunch?
Am.E:1)Should we eat lunch?
2)You ought not(oughtn’t) to have said that. 2)You shouldn’t have said that.
In AmE, ought to and used to are all used as notional verbs in the informal papers and such forms are said to be not standard forms. For example:
1)Did you ought to say that?
2)You didn’t ought to have said that.
(5) Different use of the indefinite pronoun “one”
In BrE we can use “one” to indicate the “one” of the former writing again while in AmE we usually use “he” or “his” to instead the “one” of the former writing. For instance:
One cannot succeed unless one works hard.(BrE)
One cannot succeed unless he works hard.(AmE)
3.1.3.3 Differences in articles[19]
(1)The omitting of articles
Most phrases of British English have articles, while those of American English do not have. The “the” in the standard expressions in British English “all the afternoon”, “all the winter”, “all the week”, “this time of the year”, ect. But the articles are usually omitted in American English. For example:
The swimming pools are open all summer.
I’ll be here all afternoon.
He has been gone all week.
British English will use articles in front of “sickness”, “river” and etc., while American English does not. For example,
British English expresses in the form of “the measles”, “the mumps”, “the flu”, “the Niagara Falls” and “the Black Creek”, while American English says “measles”, “mumps”, “flu”, “Niagara Falls” and “Black Creek”.
However, there are exceptions. In some expressions, British English does not use articles, while American English does.
BrE AmE
Go into hospital Go into the hospital
In hospital In the hospital
At university At the university
Sentences are as follows:
Next day, the rain began. (BrE)
The next day, the rain began. (AmE)
In future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (BrE)
In the future, I’d like you to pay more attention to detail. (AmE)
(2) The position of articles
British English and American English are different from each other in the use of “a” or “an” with “half”. In British English, “a” follows “half”, for example, “half a dozen”, “half an hour”, “half a mile”, and “half a pound”. In American English, “a” is put in front of “half”, for example, “a half dozen”, “a half hour”, “a half mile” and “a half pound”.
3.2 Syntactical differences
Syntax is the study of the principles and rules for constructing sentences in natural languages. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. I will explain the syntactic differences as follows.
3.2.1Differences in compound object[20]
The Verb“ -to do” usually used as compound object in British English, While past participle or past participle phrase mostly used as compound object in American English. Try to compare:
1)He also had ordered his luggage to be labeled for crew.(Bronte.) (BrE)
2)Last year an American hotel manager ordered his quests evacuated after an anonymous bomb threat.(AmE)
3)I have a roll that was in dead storage during the war which I ordered put back in running order. (O' Hara) (AmE)
The two compound structures (compound object with past participle and compound object with –to do) are both used in the BrE and AmE, while the AmE use compound object more frequent ly than BrE. However, there are some differences in the routine usage of Verb related to this phrase structure. The verb “to order” usually linked with the compound structure with past participle in AmE, but linked with the compound structure with “verb -to do” in BrE.
3.2.2 Presence or absence of syntactic elements[11]
Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of AmE to use to go plus bare infinitive. Speakers of BrE would instead use to go and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say I'll go take a bath, BrE speakers would say I'll go and have a bath. (Both can also use the form to go to instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.) Similarly, to come plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of AmE, where speakers of BrE would instead use to come and plus bare infinitive. Thus, where a speaker of AmE might say come see what I bought, BrE speakers would say come and see what I've bought (notice the present perfect tense: a common British preference).
As to whether a preposition is used before days denoted by a single word, British people would say she resigned on Thursday, while Americans often say she resigned Thursday, but both forms are common in American usage. Occasionally, in AmE the preposition is also absent when referring to months: I'll be here December (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).But, it will say “I’ll be here on December.” in BrE.
In the UK, from is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say the new museum will be open from Tuesday, Americans most likely say the new museum will be open starting Tuesday. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern from A to B, which are used in both BrE and AmE.) A variation or alternative of this is the most American will say “the play opens Tuesday” and the most British will say “the play opens on Tuesday”. American legislators and lawyers always use the preposition of between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British colleagues do not. We can see such differences by making comparison between Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Disability Discrimination Act 1995.
3.2.3 Different use of subjunctive mood
The subjunctive mood used more in AmE than in BrE, which is mainly used in the formal style paper.
In subjunctive mood, American English will rarely reserve traditional subjunctive words.
I suggest that meeting be postponed. (AmE)
I suggest that meeting should be postponed. (BrE)
I wish I had done it. (AmE)
I wish I would have done it. (BrE)
4. The grammatical differences between British English and the special form of American English—Black English
Black English also called African American Vernacular English which is an African American variety (dialect, ethnolect and sociolect) of American English.There are four points in which black English differs from British English.
1)Negation
In addition, negatives are formed differently from standard American English:
Use of ain't as a general negative indicator. It can be used where Standard English would use am not, isn't, aren't, haven't and hasn't, a trait which is not specific to AAVE. However, in marked contrast to other varieties of English in the U.S., some speakers of AAVE also use ain't instead of don't, doesn't, or didn't (e.g., I ain't know that).[14] Ain't had its origins in common English, but became increasingly stigmatized since the 19th century. See also amn't.
Negative concord, popularly called "double negation", as in I didn't go nowhere; if the sentence is negative, all negatable forms are negated. This contrasts with Standard English, where a double negative is considered a positive (although this wasn't always so; see double negative). There is also "triple" or "multiple negation", as in the phrase I don't know nothing about no one no more, which would be "I don't know anything about anybody anymore" in Standard English.
In a negative construction, an indefinite pronoun such as nobody or nothing can be inverted with the negative verb particle for emphasis (eg. Don't nobody know the answer, Ain't nothin' goin' on.)
While these are features that AAVE has in common with Creole languages,[15] Howe and Walker use data from early recordings of African Nova Scotian English, Samaná English, and the recordings of former slaves to demonstrate that negation was inherited from nonstandard colonial English.
Some of these characteristics, notably doubl e negatives and the omission of certain auxiliaries such as the has in has been are also characteristic of general colloquial American English.
2)The omission of copula in black English
You crazy! ("You're crazy") or She my sister ("She's my sister"). The phenomenon is also observed in questions: Who you? ("Who're you?") and Where you at? ("Where are you (at)?"). On the other hand, a stressed is cannot be dropped: She is my sister.
Only the forms is and are (the latter of which, in any case, is often replaced by is) can be omitted. These forms cannot be omitted when they are pronounced with a stress (whether or not the stress serves specifically to impart an emphatic sense to the verb's meaning).
These forms cannot be omitted when the corresponding form in Standard English cannot show contraction (and vice-versa). For example, I don't know where he is cannot be reduced to (BrE) I don't know where he because in Standard English the corresponding reduction I don't know where he's is likewise impossible. (Though I don't know where he at is possible.) Possibly some other minor conditions apply as well.[16]
3)Present-tense verbs uninflected for number/person
there is no -s ending in the present-tense third-person singular. Example: She write poetry ("She writes poetry"). Similarly, was is used for what in standard English are contexts for both was and were.[17]
4)The word it or is denoting the existence of something
This usage is equivalent to Standard English there in "there is", or "there are". It is also found in the English of the US South. Examples its a doughnut in the cabinet ("There's a doughnut in the cabinet") and It ain't no spoon ("There isn't a spoon", also "They ain't no spoon").[17]
5) Altered syntax in questions
Why they ain't growin'? ("Why aren't they growing?") and Who the hell she think she is? ("Who the hell does she think she is?") lack the inversion of standard English. Because of this, there is also no need for the auxiliary DO.[18]
To put it simply, we can summarize the grammatical differences between British and American daily English as follows[19]:
(1) Sometimes, British and American English use different grammatical forms to express the same meaning;
(2) Sometimes, the same grammatical form expresses different meanings in British and American English;
(3) In some structures, either British English or American English will use integrated grammatical form, while the other adopts the omitted form;
(4) Sometimes, American and British English use the same grammatical form to express the same concept and meaning.
However, one of them may have another expression form, while the other does not. We could only avoid misunderstanding by paying attention to those differences in our study.
5. The tendency of the development of British English and American English
The English language changes as the rapid development of politics, economic, culture in Britain and American. After it goes through the three periods (old English, middle English and modern English),it also changes everyday, especially in the related ten years, the changes of English becomes more obvious. Although the English structure is not as obvious as the lexical development, it does not ignore. On the aspect of grammar, English experience the changes from the verb inflections of old English to use word in order to express meaning in the past 1500years, and English also become analytic language from synthetic language. Such experience makes English flexible, meanwhile it also broke the traditional grammar frame, the former disagreed rules transferred into acceptable English even native English. The speed on renewing lexical words is very fast.
On the whole, British English and American English fuse with each other, and they tend to be brief, clear and more flexible for use.
6．Conclusion
As the globalization and information world developed, more and more people from different countries use the same language―English to communicate and exchange ideas with each other. The above discussion about grammar difference between British English and American English is what I have found and concluded. Although there are many differences in detailed aspects in the use of daily British and American English, they are similar to each other in most of aspects. Therefore, they shall only be considered as different forms of the same language rather than two different languages. In addition, we cannot say which one is better or advanced. Any judgment or opinion that “British English is better or worse than American English” is biased. The purpose of this paper is to help English learners understand the two varieties better and eliminate some mistakes caused in communication or paper writing.
The differences between the British English and American English are caused by politics, economy, social life, culture, and geography. American English developed from British English, but it differs from British English. All in all, sinc e English is characterized by its huge vocabulary, great tolerance, and conciseness, it leaves little room for argument that English will be well on its way to be a diversified common language.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhu Min, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Mao Can、Gao YunPing and many others.
My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
[1] 周乐, 美式英语与英式英语比较与分析[J]. 湖南商学院外语系,2008.
[2] Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language
[3] blog.languagetranslation.com/public/item/118655
[4] 王振明和公丽艳，英式英语与美式英语的差异[J]. 山东教育学院学报,2002.
[5] esl.about.com/od/toeflieltscambridge/a/dif_ambrit.htm
[6]en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences#Use_of_tenses
[7] 孟宪友，英语与美语的差别对比研究[J]. 广州大学外国语学院英语系,2002.
, Jour.of N.W. SCI-TECH Uni.of Agri.and Fore,2001.
, Journal of Shijiazhuang Teachers College,2001
, Journal of Wuhu Vocational Institute of Technology,2007
[11]Wikipedia Contributors
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_English_differences
, Journal of Hunan Agricultural University(Social Sciences), 2007
[13]张振邦,新编语法教程[M].上海,上海教育出版社,1993
, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press
[15] Winford, Donald (1992), "Back to the past: The BEV/creole connection revisited", Language Variation and Change 4 (3): 311-357
[16] Geoff Pullum, "Why Ebonics Is No Joke" Lingua Franca transcript, 17 October 1998, Australian Broadcasting Corporation.
[17] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English#Negation
[18] Green, Lisa J., African American English: A Linguistic Introduction[M], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002
【关键词】地区经济；新建地方本科院校；论文选题
中图分类号：G648.4 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1007-0125（2015）12-0214-02
我校作为全国少数几所开设有法语专业的新建地方本科院校之一，在应用型法语专业的课程设置和教学过程中十分注重对学生外语听说能力、（经贸、翻译）专业实践能力和职业发展能力的培养。然而，由于受到各方面主客观因素的影响，我校法语专业的学生在毕业论文的选题环节上较易出现问题。研究这些问题的具体表现形式、产生的原因及解决的方法，对于提高法语毕业论文质量，优化课程设置，更好地实现人才培养目标，具有积极的意义。
为更好地开展研究，笔者整理并分析了近三年（2014-2016届）法语专业本科毕业论文的选题，并于2013年和2014年在本校111名毕业班学生和224名非毕业班学生中进行了问卷调查，对存在的主要问题进行了梳理，并提出了相应对策及改善措施。
一、存在的问题
（一）选题范围过宽
与硕士学位论文和博士学位论文相比，学士学位论文因其篇幅和学生研究水平所限，其选题应当尽量从小处切入，选取专业领域中的某一个特定范围进行针对性的研究。纵观近三年的法语专业毕业论文选题，我们发现，尽管在毕业论文动员阶段和导师指导过程中再三强调了选题范围不宜过宽，但在实际选题过程中，学生仍然未能很好地把握好“切入点”的大小程度，因而不可避免地选择了范围较大的题目，如《中法家庭关系比较研究》《浅析法国人的生活艺术》等。
（二）选题方向单一，与地区经济脱节
对于应用型法语人才的本科论文而言，其选题方向除了法语语言文学以外，更多的应该涉及法语国家的经济社会文化、中国和法语国家在经济文化层面的交流，能反映和解决语言在服务于地区经济中遇到的问题。然而，在近三年毕业论文选题中，有关法语国家和地区社会文化的所占比例为40%，而与经济相关的论题比例却是逐年下降，仅占18%、10%和8.5%，其中取材或应用于地区经济的论题更是屈指可数，仅有《中法购物网站的比较》《分析中法裘皮服装业发展现状》等寥寥数篇。
（三）选题缺乏创新性、理论和实践意义不大
根据对近三年毕业论文选题的分析，我们发现，尽管学校有着毕业论文三年重复率不超过5%的硬性要求，法语专业学生的论文选题仍然存在着较大的相似性。虽然近年来也出现了一些紧跟时代潮流、与社会热点问题相关的论题，如《中东难民潮对法国及欧洲的影响》，但如拿破仑、戴高乐、路易十四之类的法国历史名人，法国的奢侈品、时装、香水和咖啡文化，中法两国的饮食文化、社交礼仪、教育现状、养老问题、女性地位仍然是许多法语专业学生偏好的研究内容。这类论题经过前人的反复研究，已经不具备必要的理论意义和实践价值。此外，大多数毕业论文选题均与社会文化相关，和法语专业毕业生在经贸领域的实习和就业关联度不大，这与学校应用型外语人才的培养目标不够契合。
二、产生问题的原因及其对策
（一）学生的主观原因及对策
1.对毕业论文及其选题的重要性和作用认识不清
尽管在问卷调查中，75%的毕业生和67%的非毕业生都认为毕业论文写作很有必要或有些必要，且绝大多数学生肯定了毕业论文选题对于论文写作的关键性作用，但对于毕业论文写作的目的，31%的毕业生和35%的非毕业生认为写毕业论文仅仅是为了满足“完成学业”的要求。由此可见，毕业论文在检验学生运用所学专业知识结合经贸或翻译领域的专业实践分析问题、解决问题能力的作用并未得到足够的重视。针对这一现象，我们需要在新生入学之际、大三下学期和大四开学之初分阶段进行毕业论文写作动员，采用循序渐进的方式让学生清楚地认识毕业论文及其选题的重要意义。
2.论文选题方式单一、用时过短，缺乏平时积累
对于论文选题方式，86%的毕业生和67%的非毕业生表示已经或打算自主选题。当被问到论文选题用时这一问题，64%的毕业生表示仅花了一周左右的时间便选定了自己的论文题目。在这短短的一周时间里，学生经过了盲目空想、搜索网络、查找文献、师生商量等一系列环节，为自己未来几个月的论文撰写匆忙选定了方向，相当一部分学生甚至连参考文献是否充足、论文写作是否可行都未尽做考虑。究其原因，主要在于学生在平常的生活、学习和实习中缺乏问题意识和思考自觉。针对这一问题，教师需要在一、二年级基础教学过程中，积极引导学生扩大阅读量、拓宽知识面，增加对法语国家与地区文化的输入；在三、四年级的经贸、翻译方向教学中，采用支架式、问题式、启发式的教学方法，培养学生独立思考的能力，引导学生从点滴积累中自然地产生对某一领域的探究欲望。
3.查找参考文献和利用网络资源的能力不够
据调查，49.5%的毕业生表示在毕业论文选题时遇到的最大困难是资料不够，78.3%的毕业生主要通过网络资源取得论文参考资料，56%的毕业生较少或从不利用学校图书馆资料室查阅文献资料。此外，非毕业班学生中打算利用网络资源取得参考资料的比例高达69.2%。以上数据表明，我校法语专业学生查找参考文献的途径单一、图书馆藏资源利用率低、通过网络查找法文文献的能力有限。针对这一问题，我们需要完善对图书资料及其检索工具的建设，结合主干课程及《经贸法语》《法语高级应用文写作》等方向课程的教学引导学生积极查找相关图书资料，并教会学生充分掌握搜索和获得法文文献的能力。
（二）教师、学校的客观原因及对策
除了以上主观原因，论文指导教师和学校制度监控方面的客观因素也影响了高质量毕业论文选题的产生。作为一所新建地方本科院校，我校法语专业的办学历史尚短，师资队伍整体水平与老牌的本科院校相较存在明显差距，且绝大部分教师不具备在经贸领域服务的经验，再加上学生人数居高不下，在指导学生论文选题时难免会有些力不从心。为此，我们需要在不断引进和培养高素质教师队伍的同时，充分利用兼职专家教授的学术资源，让青年教师尽快明确专业研究所长，提高自身的科研水平；有计划选派教师下企业挂职调研，将实践所得用于课程教学和论文指导。在学校层面，首先，加强法语专业在长三角地区尤其是浙江省的实习实训基地的建设是法语专业毕业论文选题紧扣专业培养目标、从实践中来到实践中去的有力保障。其次，建立完善的毕业论文选题监督和评价机制能够从制度上保证法语专业毕业论文选题质量。
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笔者在中国期刊全文数据库中检索“英语本科毕业论文”，搜索到相关文章109篇。这些论文多立足于国内高校英语专业毕业论文的现状，总结普遍存在的问题并提出了相应的对策。如盛国强和周永模利用问卷调查了我国132所不同类型高校的英语专业毕业论文的状况，发现抄袭、语法错误、口语化表达、结构松散和缺乏独立见解等是论文普遍存在的问题。［1］文章分析了问题形成的主客观原因，并提出解决问题的对策:改革和创新教学理念和教学手段、强化英语写作教学、把好论文选题关、科学使用研究资料和加强过程管理等。张春芳用文献法对近三十年(1981年至2009年)刊登在国内121种期刊中有关英语专业本科毕业论文研究的论文进行了调研，指出毕业论文管理、写作及指导方面存在的诸多问题，并提出对策:建立毕业论文质量管理和监控体系;把握基本的选题原则和方法;改革教学理念、教学方法、教学内容、教学模式和教材，提高教师专业知识和科研能力。［2］笔者在中国期刊全文数据库中用“英语本科毕业论文改革”作检索词进行模糊检索，得到的文章仅有2篇。其中曹胜强的《谈英语本科生毕业论文的改革策略》［3］一文中提出的改革策略并无太多新意。许晓艳从现有的专业体制形成的背景、美国本科毕业设计设置、现代社会对英语专业的要求、大学英语专业改革模式探讨和论文时间改革五个方面探讨了英语本科专业毕业设计改革的必要性，提出毕业设计应该与就业相连接。应使“1+X”型的毕业设计与“1+X”型的专业英语模式相配套。她提倡学生用英文写出多元化的毕业论文，如“英语+经贸”，“英语+旅游”或“英语+酒店管理”等，从而使学生真正做到学以致用，将毕业设计作为连接学校和社会的枢纽。［4］然而，实际情况下，“英语专业基础课和技能课仍是英语专业本科生的课程主体。X相关专业课在整个专业培养大纲的比重和课时量很难有所突破或实现”［5］。因此，学生对X专业的了解仅限于皮毛，难以写出质量较高且有一定独创性的文章。用英文撰写的要求更增大了论文撰写的难度。学生只得转而求助于网络资源，通过“拷贝”和“粘贴”完成论文。这无疑又回到了论文抄袭和论文质量低下的老路上去。综上，目前国内对英语专业本科毕业论文的改革研究多集中在改革教学理念和方法上，强化对学生论文指导的过程监控与管理等，即便这些措施在一定程度上提升了论文质量，也很难避免抄袭现象的发生。英语专业毕业论文选题单一、狭窄、缺乏实效、与社会脱节的弊端难以消除。
二、英语专业毕业论文的改革实践
笔者所在学院明确地把培养应用型创新型人才作为目标，其人才培养模式注重实用和实践，注重能力和专长。庄智象在《关于国际化创新型外语人才培养的思考》［6］一文中指出:创新型外语人才应具备“良好的语言基本功、极强的专业知识结构、创新性的思维能力和分析解决问题的实际能力”。正常情况下，英语专业的毕业论文，既要考查学生对英语专业基础知识的掌握情况，也要考查其综合应用英语的能力。二者如何协调结合，是改进毕业论文工作的一个突破口。工科院校本科生毕业前既要完成毕业论文，又要完成毕业设计。前者注重专业知识和学术性，后者检验对知识的实践应用能力，即动手能力。这种强调理论与实践相结合的理念对英语专业毕业论文工作有很好的启示:是否也可以将英语专业的毕业论文由单一的论文模式改为一种集社会实践和论文于一体的毕业设计模式?本校英语系经过多方调研和考虑，最终提出从英语专业毕业论文形式入手进行改革，力求探索一种能有效地防止抄袭，且适应应用型创新型英语人才培养目标的毕业设计模式，具体情况如下:1．改传统的毕业论文为毕业作品制作长期以来，高校英语专业本科毕业论文(设计)都是沿用《高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲》的要求:“毕业论文一般用英语撰写，长度为3000～5000个单词，要求文字通顺、思路清晰、内容充实，有一定的独立见解。”［7］若仔细推敲这句话，“一般”二字暗示着高校也可根据实际情况进行其他形式的调整。为缓解日益严重的抄袭现象，从2012届学生开始，本系改革传统的毕业论文为毕业作品制作，具体指学生运用自己所学的英语知识制作出有英语配音及中英文字幕的视频节目。不同的学生按照自己的兴趣选择不同的主题，比如人文景观、产品推介、跨文化交际等。除了制作15～30分钟的专题视频外，学生还需完成一份不少于3000字的中文稿。学生将此文稿译为质量较高的英语，用于为视频英文配音，同时视频还配以中英文字幕。几名学生可在拍摄、配音和剪辑上互相协助，但每个学生最终要提交一个独立的作品和配套的中英文文稿。为了使学生掌握一定的视频拍摄及制作的基本技能和方法，本系还特别邀请了电视台的相关专家对学生进行32学时的培训，讲授视频的拍摄技巧和后期如何利用专业的EDIUS软件进行视频编辑及字幕制作。培训扩充了学生英语专业外的传媒知识，使学生获益匪浅。2．将毕业设计工作提前到学生就业前以往毕业论文从第七学期开始进行，第八学期进入到论文撰写最紧张的阶段。这时学生基本步入社会，或就业实习，或四处求职，无法集中精力进行写作。学生离开校园导致信息资料缺乏，引发网络抄袭，与指导老师的沟通也受到影响。为了改善这种状态，本系要求2012届的毕业生在第六学期即开始毕业设计的前期工作，包括毕业设计选题、开题报告撰写与修改以及开题报告的答辩。从暑假至第七学期中旬，学生完成毕业设计文字稿初稿，在教师指导下不断修改并最终形成定稿，继而完成拍摄工作及后期制作。第七学期中下旬完成毕业设计答辩，学生修改后提交最终版作品。将毕业设计提前，避免了学生毕业设计时段与找工季的冲突，学生有更充分的时间寻找自己最感兴趣的题目，将理论学习与实践操作相结合。这样不仅提高了毕业设计质量，还能增强学生学习的积极性，同时也便于教师在校内对学生进行面对面的指导。3．改革为毕业作品制作的优势其一，视频制作属于原创性的作品，学生自行选择感兴趣的题目，亲自为视频配音并出镜，有效地制止了抄袭现象的发生，且学生选题不再狭窄单一，时效性大大增强。很明显，改革后学生毕业设计的选题比改革前更丰富更新颖。其二，相比以往多届学生反复写过的没有新意的论文来说，新形式的毕业设计拥有更多的社会文化价值和实用价值。由于学生大都来自广东，其毕业设计多围绕广东本土的人文景观、企业及产品、文化传统等进行。如“岭南水乡———小洲村”、“主题公园的营销策略———欢乐谷成功之道”、“潮汕成人礼———出花园”、“西关文化的传承和保护———西关大屋的历史变迁”等许多作品富有浓郁的地方特色。学生亦可选取自己有求职意向的行业作为毕业设计的主题。最终每个毕业作品被单独刻录在光盘上，可作为学生求职简历的一部分，反映学生的实践能力，在严峻的就业形势下为成功应聘增添筹码。其三，学生开动脑筋自编自导视频作品，很大程度上培养了自己的创新意识、创新思维和创新精神。如“千年葵艺在新会”的制作者巧妙地把一位老奶奶摇着葵扇给孙女讲故事的场景引入到视频的主题———介绍广东新会的“葵艺”发展史。其四，将中文稿翻译成英文，在老师指导下不断修改至最佳的过程，使学生的写作翻译技能和语法、词汇等英文基本功有了显著的提升。其五，在为视频英文配音的过程中，学生反复练习英文稿的朗读，并在教师帮助下纠正错误发音，改善了语音语调，提高了口头表达能力。其六，通过在网上搜索毕业设计视频的相关素材，锻炼了学生搜集、筛选和运用资料的能力。其七，视频拍摄和编辑软件的学习以及后期的字幕制作等实践大大提高了学生的学习能力和动手能力。其八，拍摄前与公司厂家或景区等多方联系，锻炼了学生的社会交往沟通能力。视频由几名同学或亲友相互配合共同完成，培养了学生的团队合作能力。4．鼓励部分有需要的学生继续撰写毕业论文少数打算读研或出国深造的学生需要通过做毕业论文为今后的学习打下良好的学术基础，为此，改革不能搞“一刀切”，应鼓励部分学生撰写论文并配备优秀教师对其指导。
三、改革效果和结语
关键词：毕业论文 课程教学 反拨效应
中图分类号：G642 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791（2014）09（c）-0135-01
该文拟论述毕业论文培养应贯穿于整个本科阶段的课程教学，分析毕业论文培养与课程教学之间的关系，从英语本科毕业论文存在的问题来审视目前的英语本科教育，探索其对英语本科教育的指导性。
1 毕业论文培养环节与课程教学
教学计划上所谓毕业论文培养环节只是用来界定毕业前的最后学习阶段，而对学生的培养远不仅限于此阶段。《高等院校英语专业教学大纲》也指出：“毕业论文是考察学生综合能力，评估学业成绩的一个重要方式。”[2]由此可见，毕业论文的质量反映了本科阶段的教学质量。它表明了学生的外语水平和实际应用外语的能力，学生发现并提出问题、解决问题的能力以及独立从事科研工作的能力[1]。这些能力的培养都涉及到本科阶段的所有课程教学，远非短期的毕业论文写作指导所能及。另外，可以看出毕业论文是对本科教学质量的检测，而毕业论文存在的问题也集中体现了常规教学中的弊端。分析毕业论文存在的问题可以有效地指导常规课程教学，而课程教学质量的提高也必将体现到毕业论文质量上。
2 存在主要问题
通过对某高校2007、2008级英语本科毕业论文的综合分析，以及对这两界毕业生进行的问卷调查，发现毕业论文写作存在的问题集中体现在以下两个方面。
首先，英语语言能力较差，思路不清晰，语言缺乏逻辑性。学生英语行文能力差，语法错误多，文章可读性较低。写作目的不明确，陈述思路混乱，经常出现文不对题的情况。很多同学虽然用英文行文但是却用汉语思维组织语言，使行文前后不连贯缺乏逻辑性，且不注重段与段之间的粘连，整篇文章呈现出零散，脱节，中心不明确的状态。
其次，缺乏问题意识；论证过程缺乏理论支撑。学生缺乏问题意识，对所学的知识大多是被动的接受，很少对所学知识进行创造性思考；另外学生的知识积淀较少，无从发现问题。因此绝大部分学生的选题通过网上搜索，拼凑而来，这给论文写作带了极大的困难。再者，学生对相关理论知识被动接受，不能与实际相结合应用到论证过程中，这使得文章缺乏说服力，大多停留于感性层面的叙述。
根据以上两个方面问题，笔者将本科教育阶段的课程分为语言能力基础课程，高年级专业课程两类来探究毕业论文对课程教学的反拨效应。
3 对课程教学的反拨效应
3.1 语言能力基础课程
学生在毕业论文写作中表现出来的英语行文能力差不能简单地归咎于写作、语法或某一门课程。语言能力的听、说、读、写是一个有机整体，是相互依存，相互作用的。因此，英语语言能力低是所有听说读写的基础课程的问题。反思一下这些基础课程就不难找出其中原因。阅读课和听力课上教师注重传授解题技巧，如何在考试中得高分。通常课程内容是大量解题训练，而不注重学生对整篇文章的综合分析和理解。语法课大多是教师孜孜不倦地讲解语法点然后做大量的应试练习，脱离了作为载体的语言，学习语法的意义也仅仅是卷子上一个高低不同的分数而已。写作课亦是如此，固定的框架，模式，句型一切都服务于考试。综合英语本是一门将听说读写整合并形成语言自主输出的课程，但学生被要求背单词，背课文，大部分时间是被动地接受，很少有在真实的语言环境中进行自主语言输出的机会。不难看出，语言能力培养的基础课程的重心偏向于应试训练而忽略学生这个主体，久而久之，学生也习惯这样的被动接受。然而，要使教师所传授的这些语言规则支配的语言行为达到完全自由自主的程度，即内化为学生自己的语言能力，是需要大量的自主的语言输出练习才能转化为语言技能，才能帮助学生顺利地完成毕业论文写作。因此，要提高学生的语言能力，就要将语言能力基础课程的重心转向学生语言能力的培养，如何在大量的自主语言输出训练中将输入，分析，理解，归纳，总结，输出内化为学生自己的语言能力。
3.2 高年级专业课程
高级专业课程主要是指语言学、文学、翻译方向的相关课程，以及一些行业英语课程。这些课程是学生毕业论文题目的主要来源。然而，学生在毕业论文阶段却表现出缺乏问题意识，不能发现问题，更不用说解决问题。而论文选题的动因是在于发现问题，这样才能就题而论，有话可说。[3]这与基础课程养成的被动接受的习惯不无关系，更重要的是在教学中教师通常只激发学生的低级心里过程（lower mental process）。以文学课为例，老师讲授每个时期特点，文学贡献，某个作家的生平，著作，对文学理论进行介绍以及一些著名作品的分析，考试的内容也大致如此。学生只需要简单背诵，再现即可，背诵再现即是不需要思维的低级心里过程。而毕业论文写作恰恰需要调动学生的高级思维过程（higher mental process），需要学生有缜密的外语思维能力，批判的、系统的推理能力和跨文化沟通能力。[4]久而久之，学生自然很难通过自主思维发现问题，即缺乏问题意识。因此，对于选题往往采取“拿来主义”，以至于论文写作时无话可说，只能继续采取“拿来主义”。由此可见，高级专业课程应该思考如何调动学生的高级心里过程，提高学生的问题意识，学会如何发现问题，用缜密严谨的思维分析问题，解决问题。
4 结论
本科教育是一个系统工程，毕业论文项目和其它课程均为此系统的构成要素，它们不应是孤立存在而应是相互联系、相互作用。[5]同时，毕业论文对本科教育进行综合检测，对本科教育起到有益的指导作用，促使高校改进并提高教学质量，而教学质量的提高又反作用于毕业论文写作，从而从根本上提高毕业论文质量。
参考文献
[1] 教育部高等教育司.北京市教育委员会.高等学校毕业设计（论文）指导手册外语卷（修订版）[Z].北京：高等教育出版社 经济日报出版社，2007：1.
[2] 高等学校外语专业教学指导委员会英语组.高等学校英语专业英语教学大纲[Z].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2000：5.
[3] 张菁.英语本科毕业论文写作质量问题探讨[J].南京人口管理干部学院学报，2008（4）：62.
专业
指导教师
职称
论文题目
论文完成日期 2012年03月 论文字数
申请答辩时间 2011年05月 申请答辩理由：
本文在比较广泛地搜索、整理并系统地归纳总结出英语动词主被动语态之间不对称现象的大量翔实、可靠的语言材料，在此基础上结合相关语言学理论展开严谨的科学分析和理论探索。
本文主要研究发现：首先，对英语主被动语态之间的不同选择根源于英语动词的行为本身包含的行为特征，对英语动词本身的语义特征及内涵的深入认识在英语主被动语态认知方面起重要的作用；其次，英语主动语态转换成被动语态时会导致部分句子成分的位置移动，这也有可能引起句子语义的变化;再次，英语中存在一些词类,比如,限定词，数量词和代词等肯能影响英语主被动语态的选择；最后，英语语态的选择与转换不仅仅涉及到句法结构，主要信息的变化，而且关系到语用、语义和人类认知心理诸多个方面。
此外，对英语主被动语态之间不对称现象的切入点在于英语动词这一词类本身，所以，以英语词类为切入点或可作为一种研究方法，来研究、认识英语语言乃至普遍语言的规律性的东西。
最后如何将英语主被动语态不对称现象的深层原因，比如动词的行为特征，英语句法，英汉思维差距等因素体现在英语动词语法习得和使用过程中是值得继续探讨的问题。
本人保证：所提交论文完全为个人工作成果，所用资料、实验结果及计算数。
（通过查阅文献和阅读相关资料，严格按照毕业论文的格式和要求，完成论文的撰写工作。经过指导教师审核检查、评阅教师审核，所写论文已经达到了本科生毕业论文要求，特申请进行毕业论文答辩。
经过长时间的充分准备，所有设计资料已经准备齐全，在第一草、二草、三草、征稿等阶段的不断推敲上，已全部完成毕业设计（论文）的要求内容。现已向答辩组提交的内容有：1、毕业设计（论文）任务书，2、毕业设计（论文）开题报告，3、毕业论文，4、毕业设计（论文）指导教师记录表，5、
毕业设计（论文）指导教师中期检查表，7、毕业设计（论文）答辩申请表。综上所述，本人已具备参加答辩能力，现向答辩组提出正式申请，望批准!（根据学校要求自己改一下） 指导教师意见：该生认真系统的学习了时间序列的理论和方法，查阅大量文献，在论文写作过程中虚心听取指导教师的意见。论文内容充实，层次结构合理科学，格式规范，语言表达清楚、流畅。达到本科生毕业论文水平。同意参加答辩。
签名：
年 月 日 答辩委员会意见：
1.英语专业硕士毕业论文的语言错误分析研究
2.本科毕业论文教学改革的实践与探讨
3.经管类专业本科毕业论文质量亟待提高
4.英语本科毕业论文写作的动机研究及其启示
5.英语专业本科毕业论文存在问题的分析和对策
6.本科毕业论文管理工作的改革与实践
7.推进本科毕业论文模式改革探析
8.本科生毕业论文抄袭问题的治理及效果比较
9.本科生毕业论文(设计)规范化管理探析
10.中日两国大学毕业论文的政策研究——兼论外语专业人才培养
11.本科毕业论文选题质量的探索与实践
12.试论高校毕业论文(设计)的全面质量管理
13.基于提高自主学习能力的本科生毕业论文训练体系
14.高校本科毕业论文学术不端现象平议
15.加强毕业论文管理是提高毕业论文质量的重要保证
16.提高大学生毕业设计(论文)的教学质量研究
17.本科生毕业论文质量的影响因素及其监控
18.毕业论文的远程指导与过程监控
19.基于Web的毕业论文管理系统
20.土木工程专业本科生毕业论文(设计)现状调查与分析
21.综合性大学取消本科毕业论文辨析
22.MTI学位毕业论文调查：现状与对策
23.英语专业翻译选题毕业论文的改革尝试
24.加强毕业论文指导提升学生综合素质——关于本科生毕业论文若干问题的思考
25.“开放式”毕业论文(设计)指导模式的研究与探索
26.本科毕业论文(设计)体制改革探析
27.MTI学位毕业论文写作模式探讨——以北外奥组委翻译班毕业论文撰写为个案
28.保证本科毕业论文(设计)质量的探索与思考
29.本科毕业论文教学改革研究——以工商管理专业为例
30.现代远程教育中毕业论文管理现状与对策研究
31.现代远程教育毕业论文教学体系的构建与实施
32.高校本科生毕业论文改革设计方案新构思
33.高校本科生毕业论文中存在的问题及对策
34.理工科大学生毕业论文(设计)教学环节的现状与思考
35.我国本科毕业论文制度的阐释与建构
36.当前我国本科毕业论文的质量现状及其对策分析
37.艺术设计专业毕业论文写作教学的思考
38.清华大学图书馆收藏的民国毕业论文的整理与研究
39.高职商务英语专业实践性毕业论文新模式探讨
40.基于层次分析法的毕业论文(设计)综合评价方法
41.应用型本科院校提高学生毕业论文质量的探索
42.论毕业论文的全面质量管理和监控
43.提高本科毕业论文质量的途径
44.本科毕业论文的现状分析及对策
45.近30年国内英语专业毕业论文写作研究
46.毕业论文与科研能力培养相关问题探索
47.基于网络的交互式共享型毕业论文指导学习管理系统的实践与应用
48.本科毕业论文质量影响因素的调查与分析
关键词： 独立学院 英语专业本科学生 英语学术论文写作 问题
1.引言
严格说来，听、说、读、写、译五个方面的技能在任何一门外语的学习中都处于同等重要的位置，很难说孰重孰轻。若非要进行比较、分个伯仲，在以上几项技能中，写的能力当属最重要。这是因为，写作能力的高低往往会直接决定外语学习中听、说、读、译等技能方面的好坏。英语写作能力强，则有可能直接促进英语听、说、读、译能力的提高。反之，如果一个人的英语写作能力一般，就很难想象其英语的听、说、读、译的水平与能力会好到哪里去。难怪在语言学领域内，有人提出了“一切课程均为写作课。”（All courses are writing courses.）的主张。
作为毕业必要条件的英语毕业论文的写作更能反映学了近四年英语专业课程的英语专业毕业生的综合英语能力。用英语语言撰写毕业论文的写作过程，实际上是英语专业学生大量阅读有关语言学、文学、经贸、跨文化交际、英语学习、翻译实践与理论等选题方向文献背景知识的输入过程。同时，用英语撰写毕业论文的过程是英语专业大四学生输出其近四年专业知识习得的过程，学生过去近四年所学的关于基础英语、英语阅读、英语听力、英语写作、英汉互译、语言学、英语国家与文化等方面的知识，往往在整个毕业论文的撰写过程中得以体现。另外，用英语撰写毕业论文也能反映学生的英语逻辑思维能力和英语语言的组织及表述能力，论文写作的叙事论理过程能很好地体现学生的逻辑思辨能力。可以说，投入近半年时间写成的英语毕业论文能从很大程度上反映英语专业本科学生的英语专业素养。作为英语学术论文写作课程教师和多次同时指导英语专业三本和一本、二本学生撰写毕业论文的导师，笔者发现，相比英语专业一本、二本学生而言，独立学院英语专业本科学生撰写英语英语毕业论文的能力相对薄弱。下面笔者以指导的温州大学瓯江学院17位2010级英语专业本科学生撰写的英语毕业论文为例，窥探独立学院英语专业本科学生英语学术论文撰写能力的现状。
2.英语学术论文写作中存在的种种问题
虽然经历了大一、大二阶段基础英语、英语写作、英语口语、英语写作、英语阅读，以及大三、大四阶段高级英语、笔译、口译、英美文学、英语国家与文化、语言学等课程的学习和熏陶，但是很多即使通过了英语专业八级考试（TEM8）行将毕业的英语专业本科学生在其英语毕业论文写作过程中还是存在大量的错误，有的错误叫人忍俊不禁，有的让人看了会暴跳如雷、不忍卒读。
2.1单词拼写错误
笔者发现，行将毕业的英语专业本科毕业生普遍存无法正确拼写英语单词的困难。一方面，许多学生未能记住不少英语原形动词的正确拼写形式，另一方面，他们往往拿不准一些动词的现在分词形式、过去分词和过去式的正确拼写形式。同时，一些名词的复数、副词和形容词的比较级和最高级的拼写形式也令他们感到头疼。与以往一样，在指导温州大学瓯江学院17位2010级行将毕业的英语专业本科学生撰写英语毕业论文的过程中，笔者花费了大量的时间和精力、一遍又一遍修改他们出现的英语单词拼写错误。以下是学生在Word工具栏下的“拼写和语法”识别功能的帮助下还存在的英语单词拼写错误案例：
（1）As we all known，China is not only a big country with a large population.
（2）Listening，speaking，reading，writting and translation are equally important in learning a foreign language.
（3）The Frist Primary School of Shangcheng town，Longwan detrict，was brought up in September 1949...
（4）It is ture that reading makes a full man.
（5）There many different kinds of problem in the translation.Many causes have contributed to this phenomena.
（6）They never learn a word in deep，what they master just the surface.
（下划线由笔者所加，下同。）
2.2字母大、小写错误
英语单词字母大、小写拼写错误是独立学院英语专业本科毕业生英语毕业论文撰写过程中的又一常见错误。不少学生似乎不知道或者忽视了英语单词字母大、小写的如下规定：每个英语句子的首词首字母始终要大写；专有名词中的实词的首字母要大写而虚词的首字母要小写（位于句首时例外）；普通名词表特指时其首字母要大写；分号后面句子的首词首字母要小写等。举例如下：
（1）As the development of globalization，china’s relation with other countries has become more and more closer ，especially in the area of economy ，culture and technology.
（2）In the late 20th century，western scholars began to further study abbreviations by employing cognitive linguistics，computational linguistics and psychological linguistics.
（3）Translation of Public Signs in Wenzhou city of syntax errors is also a wide range of variety.
（4）As everyone knows，Coca-cola is American famous trademark.In China，it has been translated into“可口可乐”，the transliteration“可口可乐”of the brand name “Coca-cola” not only keep the formal rhythm，but also make customers know what is it when they heard this brand.
2.3英语措辞错误
用恰当的英文词汇表达恰当的意思是英语学术论文写作的一大要求。然而，笔者发现，众多独立学院英语专业本科学生在英文行文措辞方面存在较大困难，往往存在词不达意、犯中式英语的毛病。举例如下：
（1）The translator should pay attention to improve their own professional quality.
（2）At present，Wenzhou city public language translation still exist many problems，such as death problem translation，hard translation and printing，spelling，grammar errors.
（3）There have many different kinds of problem in the translation.
（4）In general English，there are many words often used in our daily life.
（5）Medical English vocabulary is rather large，may be on general dictionary has collected more than 56，000 thousand items.
2.4标点符号使用混乱
标点符号在写作与翻译中的意义与作用非同寻常，对同一句子使用不同的标点符号会使句意相应发生变化。标点符号的使用不当，除会造成误会外，甚至会给自己或他人造成巨大的损失。山东淄博一公司因协议录入失误，点错逗号，从而损失35万元[1]，这一事件便说明了小小标点符号的重大意义。
汉语本无标点，现代汉语中的标点是借用英文标点而来的，在具体使用中又与英文行文标点略有不同。如：汉语的省略号为六点“……”，而英文行文表省略则用三点“…”；汉语中的句号为“。”，而英文则用“.”；汉语有顿号，英文却无，而用逗号取而代之；汉语有书名号，英文则用下划线或斜体字表示作品名；英文直接引语中说话人后用逗号，而汉语却用冒号。另外，汉语中表选择时也不用英文中的“/”符号，而用括号“（ ）”。只有在通晓中、英两种语言文字标点使用原则的前提下，在中英文写作时方不致出现标点使用上的尴尬和错误。然而，笔者发现，独立学院英语专业本科学生在英语毕业论文的撰写过程中存在大量标点符号使用不当的现象。举例如下：
（1）Many English major students want to be a translator in the future，but their translate skill is not so well，their knowledge is not so broaden and the most important is that their vocabulary is small.
（2）People may wonder why it grows so rapidly？
（3）There are a lot of different usages of nouns，all the general terms such as the name of company and team and other proper nouns；
（4）Therefore，a large number of French vocabulary blend into old English，old English lost a lot of inflection，Middle English was formed.
（5）The ancientness mainly put up in the vocabulary usage，it remained and raised a large number of vocabularies which is become the “obsolete words” in British English.
2.5句法错误
英语句法的正确与否在很大程度上直接决定整个英语学术论文的质量高低。英语写作中的句子成分的正确使用、主谓一致、句子衔接、人称照应、时态、语态、语气等，都是英语学术论文写作中应该重点关注的问题。笔者发现，英语句法错误是独立学院英语专业本科学生写作英语毕业论文面临的最大障碍，句法方面的错误可以说俯拾即是。
（1）Search on the Internet，there is only a few information about the definition of the words “unusual meaning”.
（2）When referred to how to illustrate “etiquette”，we can put it into two parts.
（3）From the investigation，the author have found：（1）88% of respondents rate recognized the importance of E-C translation competence in English learning.
（4）We all know that the role of the brand names is complex.It must perform a number of quite different functions satisfactorily.
（5）As China are presenting itself as one of the mayor partner for the world main economies，with much attention attached to different aspects of a real China，the English speaking countries not only interested in the Chinese economy system，but also the cultural background for familiarizing with the Chinese way of thinking and doing things，as the Sunwu has said in his strategy guiding book that if you know your opponent well，you can win a competitive edge and save half your work in gaining a victory，so does in the cooperation between different countries.
（6）So most of time when they do translation，the don’t know how to choose the right meaning of the word，sometimes they use the common meaning of the word，because they just know this one，which lead to the translation is not so pleasure.
（7）However，for people in England，they attached great importance to localism.
3.问题分析
独立学院英语专业本科学生撰写英语毕业论文的能力较为薄弱，这已是不争的事实，其原因可归纳为以下三点。
3.1英语基础薄弱
事实表明，很多独立学院英语专业本科学生在中小学阶段就没有打好英语学习的基础，很多学生还不知道基本的英语句子写作规范、不了解英语单词的分类和大小写要求，未记住众多英语单词的正确拼写形式，更不用说各种词类的语法变化形式，不知晓或不记得英语行文标点符号的写作规范要求。薄弱的基础直接决定了其在撰写英语毕业论文的过程中无法正确地拼写英语词汇、无法正确地遣词造句和准确地使用标点符号，更不用说用正确的英语语句和词汇来进行推理和论证了。
3.2学习方法欠妥
处于信息时代的独立学院英语专业本科学生过多地依赖电子媒体来学习英语，英语专业教师用PPT和其他电子媒介来授课，学生用手机来查英语单词，一切与英语学习的方式都依赖电子媒介和快餐式的教学手段及方式。其结果是学生根本记不住英语单词的拼写形式，不了解英语单词的具体用法，不会运用所学单词正确地遣词造句，记不得各种句法规范。由此独立学院英语专业本科生很多都变成了只会说些不标准的英语，能听懂一些简单的英语对话，而不会用正确的英语进行读写的现代“英语文盲”。
3.3疏于第二课堂的学习
英语并非中国人的母语，这就注定了英语的学习是困难的。要学好英语，就得下工夫提高英语的听、说、读、写、译、唱能力。然而，笔者的调查问卷表明，绝大多数独立学院的英语专业本科学生的第二课堂学习做得不理想，鲜少有学生每天用英文写日记，很少有学生经常用英语与外籍人士交流，没有几位学生坚持每天收听英语广播，几乎没有学生反映他们交了英文笔友，也没有发现有学生喜欢练习演唱英文歌曲，少有学生在课后用笔记法复习英语单词及其用法，没有几位学生有兴趣参加“英语角”并讲英语。独立学院大多数英语专业本科学生的英语基础本身就弱，而后天又疏于第二课堂的学习，从而制约了其英语学术论文写作的能力和水平也就不足为怪了。
4.提高独立学院英语专业本科学生英语学术论文写作能力之我见
改变独立学院英语专业本科学生英语学术论文写作能力和水平薄弱的现状，关键在于学生本人。要提高其英语学术论文写作能力，独立学院英语专业本科学生应做到以下两点。
4.1必须重视第二课堂的学习
笔者发现，独立学院英语专业英语毕业论文写得较好的学生往往都十分重视第二课堂的学习。英语毕业论文撰写过程中的遣词造句、行文表述和叙事论理都与第二课堂的学习密切关联。一位英语毕业论文写作获优秀成绩的学生反映，她坚持每天写英文日记，看到外籍人士就有冲动――想讲英语的冲动，每年都订阅《21世纪》英文报纸等。
的确，坚持写英文日记是学生提高英文写作能力与水平的最可行的途径。大凡文豪或语言大师的语言积累与造化，无不从写日记开始。英语专业本科学生应与以英文为母语的外籍人士交笔友，感受他们原汁原味的文风。还要每天收听半小时的英文广播、观看健康向上的英语电影，以及对报纸刊杂志或笔友的行文造句模仿与吸收到自己再创造，通过持之以恒地练习，从而最终获得成功的喜悦。凡事唯手熟耳，英语学术论文写作能力的提高也不例外。
4.2回归传统笔记学习法
电子媒介在方便英语专业本科学生学习英语的同时，大大制约其英语听、说、读、写、译的能力。很多独立学院英语专业本科学生患上了英语“写失症”，无法准确拼写单词，不能正确运用句法表达思想。有鉴于此，独立学院英语专业本科学生应该回归传统的笔记学习法，每天用笔记忆单词的拼写和用法，记忆句法规范，用笔复习、整理学习的各种语法知识，从而为英语学术论文的撰写打下基础，否则，要写出高水平的英语学术论文将永远是个美梦。
5.结语
英文学术论文的写作涉及面广而宽、精而细。事实上，在英语毕业论文写作过程中，独立学院英语专业本科学生单在英语字、词、句等方面的处理上已存在诸多困难，至于他们对整个论文篇章结构的把控和叙事论理的能力如何就可想而知了。要改善和提高英语学术论文写作能力和水平，独立学院英语专业本科学生应加大第二课堂学习，回归传统笔记学习法。否则，每个英语单词、每个英语句子都需修改的论文指导方式，将永远是对每个英语专业教师健康的伤害。
